Getting to Know the Samoan Culture

Environment:

The Samoan culture resides in the South Pacific in the country of Samoa, remaining on nine islands with the two main islands being Savai’I and Upolu.  The villages in which the culture lives are in coastal communities (in which a large percentage reside) or on top of mountain ranges; however regardless of where the villages are built, one commonality is that they are built around a malae, otherwise known as the village square.  Keeping in mind that the village square is to be just that, in the square center, churches and houses are then built around it.  The setting in Samoa is both rural and urban as it is comprised of both agricultural land as well as a town atmosphere with a malae.  There are mountains with volcanoes as well as flat lands that reside near the sea. Since the country is near the equator, the weather tends to have high temps and tropical weather with high humidity and rainfall. There are wet and dry seasons experienced in Samoa with wet lasting from November to April and dry from May to October; although there is a wet season, the temperature remains quite steady and warm throughout.

The population in Samoa sees roughly 94% of the country with Samoan heritage, with a small percentage being from a variety of other backgrounds, such as Melanesian and European.   Since the country sees mostly Samoan inhabiting the land, there is less chance of competition for resources as a large percentage of the culture calls Samoa home.  The resources in which the culture turns to are provided by the rich soil and rainforests that make up the land.  The animals that call the islands home are the flying fox, tooth billed pigeons, small bats, flycatcher bird, Mao bird, the fantail, pigs and chickens, as well as lizards and snakes.   Plants that thrive in this rich and lush atmosphere are orchids, aloe vera, papaya, ginger, guava, coconut, plumeria, yams, sweet potato, bananas, and plums. The Samoan culture relies on many of their plants for medicine as well as for building supplies for their homes, and it is believed that Samoans from the early days brought about 50 plant species with them to Samoa, which they then used for this purpose.

Although the country of Samoa consists of flat land with fertile soil, the increasing population and climatic changes have begun to threaten their land and resources, leading to many food shortages. Greenhouse gas emissions have led to drastic climate change with warmer temps, heavier rainfall and more cyclones; in comparison to the previous 500 years, the weather has changed dramatically. The change in population which has led to the clearing of land, the destruction of plants and inevitably burning of fossil fuels has attributed to the environmental stress faced by the country of Samoa. The country itself has been witness to the drastic change in weather which can be attributed to humans; if nothing changes to slow down the consumption of natural resources, it can be predicted that climatic conditions will only worsen and bring about longer droughts and more intense hurricanes.

Climatic Adaptations:

In order for the Samoan culture to survive in the tropical conditions provided on the island of Samoa, their bodies have physically adapted and the people themselves have made changes to culturally adapt as well. In terms of physical adaptation, Samoan’s have experienced an increase in melanin levels in order to protect their skin from the harsh rays of the sun. Without such substance, their skin would be more susceptible to burning as their land tends to receive constant sun, rain or shine.  Another physical adaptation is increased immunity to illnesses as Samoan’s live in close quarters; their population has seen a drastic increase in recent times which gives way to potential outbreaks in illness and diseases. Without an increase in immunity, Samoan’s would be vulnerable to another epidemic seen with the influenza outbreak that occurred in 1918; as a result of this outbreak over 8000 lives were lost. In regards to cultural adaptations, Samoan’s have made necessary adjustments in order to adapt well to their environment.  One of their changes has been to build seawalls, which help to protect them and their land from increasing sea levels, much of which has to do with global warming.  Another issue caused by the weather has been more intense and recurrent cyclones which have damaged villages and their land, which in turn has severely damaged their natural resources.  As a result, many Samoans made the decision to relocate in order to survive.   A third cultural adaptation has been the way Samoans construct their houses.  In order to protect themselves from the harsh temperatures caused by being in close proximity to the equator, resources such as coconut leaves are used to create panels, which essentially block the sun.  These panels are also used to protect from the rain and cold; the panels are bound together by string which allow them to be let down to protect from hot rays and cold weather. 

Language:

In Samoa, the traditional language is Samoan, which comes from the Austronesian family.  Unique traits of this language are that it lacks consonants, overuses vowels and uses independently small words, and has fourteen letters in the alphabet.  Since the Samoan language originates from other forms of language, it is not drastically different than others and in fact shares many similarities. Although the Samoan language is now a written language it wasn’t written until the 19^th century; prior to this time it was solely a spoken language.  

Gender Roles:

Gender roles in Samoa consist of three roles which are the male, female, and the fa’afafine.  The fa’afafine is an individual that is born as a male however learns to take on female gender roles since childhood.  Although they take on female roles, they have both male and female traits and exhibit feminine and masculine behavior.  Their role is one that is important and is determined by what is needed within the group and for its success, rather than emphasis being placed on the individual; if the woman needs assistance with daily duties, than a young boy will be groomed to assume this role and help take on the load.  The fa’afafine takes a mate in a male however in the community, they are not viewed as homosexual, as one might be viewed in the Western culture.  The relationship between biology and gender roles is shown by the belief in the Samoan culture, which defines one’s gender role by what one does, rather than the gender that they were born with.  As a fa’afafine is groomed since an early age to transition to such role, the same goes with all children and the role they are to assume.  Children learn from an early age just what role in their household and community they are to fulfill.  For men, their role is to overlook the household, do heavier cooking and heavier labor, and fish and plant. Women are then viewed as the caretaker of the children and the household, gather fish on the shore, and weed in the fields. In recent times, the culture is seeing more of a blending of roles without repercussions; however it is expected that traditional roles are upheld. The village however is the deciding factor in what is accepted and unaccepted, and therefore it depends on how strict the village is in maintaining traditional gender roles. There is also easier transition within roles as Samoan’s are groomed since childhood to know what is expected of each role in the community. To further show the blending of roles, one can look at the fa’afafine and the role of matai (also known as chief). The fa’afafine is a blend of both male and female gender roles and takes on responsibilities as needed whereas the matai is a role that is not decided by gender but one in which takes into account contributions by the individual; both man and woman can assume the role however recent times have shown more men than women are awarded such title. Overall we can see that the three gender roles have expectations to fulfill, and that such roles are shaped by the community and what is needed for success.     

Subsistence:

The Samoan culture’s subsistence pattern is one that stems from farming, hunting and fishing.  Farming provided bananas, coconut, and taro, as well as many other items for consumption; fishing, which is an important resource, provides an array of fish and sea turtles that Samoan’s in turn would cook and eat for sustenance. Hunting also provided much for consumption and was aided through the use of rifles and shotguns; food was found through the hunting of wildlife, fruit doves, fruit bats, doves, pigeons, and other birds found on the land.  Although Samoan’s eat a variety of foods found on land and in the sea, the availability of such resources is dwindling through increasing population.  As a result, the community has had to turn to imports to provide sufficient amounts of food.  This is not the case for the entire Samoan community; some may still choose to sustain themselves through their own agriculture and fishing, however the resources available are not able to sufficiently sustain an entire country anymore. Although the community has seen the resources dwindle, it does help that fruit bats and birds are available year round for hunting.  Sea turtles are also available year round however overconsumption of these reptiles has placed many restrictions on their capture and consumption as they are now an endangered species. 

Labor in the villages is determined by gender.  For men, they go out and hunt and fish whereas women do the lighter labor such as nurturing crops such as yams and taro. Age is a deciding factor in what tasks an individual is expected to perform. Younger children are utilized by carrying food from the plantation to the village, washing clothes and working in the fields with their elders.  Children that are older help women with tasks such as weaving baskets.  Elderly are also utilized in the community by taking on a more supervisory role that allows them to contribute, yet at the same time they aren’t required to overexert themselves. No matter what their role is, it is expected that their task is a measure of what they are able to accomplish and that each and everyone will contribute to the success of the community.

The Samoan culture has seen high obesity rates due to the consumption of foods that are high in fat, such as fried food and coconut milk; they also eat starchy substances such as taro, and do not consume enough vegetables.  For the culture however obesity is not viewed by society as a negative, rather it is seen as being well nourished and of high status as the past has shown royal families to be obese. To be thin however is seen as a negative and is looked upon as malnourished. As far as resources are concerned, many have been depleted due to over-consumption, such as the sea turtles and the many birds that have been wiped out due to hunting.   Destructive cyclones and hurricanes that have hit the islands have also had a hand at damaging crops, leaving many to have replant and replenish what was lost.  

                                        

Economic System:

With the increase in population that the island has seen, resources have been used and are dwindling, leaving no room for surplus; this then has caused many natives to turn to the imports that are brought to the island from other countries. Currency in Samoa was introduced in 1967 and is called the Tala.  In Samoa, trade happens everyday and has aided the country by providing financial assistance. Samoa has also felt a negative effect caused by such trade as land has been taken over by companies and goods that were once produced by the natives have been replaced by imports. 

Marriage:

Marriage in Samoa is one that is monogamous between two partners; this however was not always the case as the country had seen many polygamous relationships prior to Christianity.  Marriage is viewed as something sacred, and as a result, the bride is expected to maintain her virginity until she is married, which is often ensured by the presence of chaperones.  Another taboo in regards to marriage is community endogamy, which is highly frowned upon. Married partners themselves often find each other through their village counsel.  The counsel determines which groom the bride shall marry (who should be of the same rank) and after much courting through food and goods, a meeting will take place which solidifies the union through formal consent.  Once the couple is married, they tend to live with the bride’s family early in their marriage, and then ultimately make the move to live in the husband’s family home.

Kinship:

In a typical Samoan home many people reside; often more than twenty.  The male in the household traditionally maintains most authority as they take on more responsibilities and duties.  They are also more likely to become a Matai or chief.  In regards to inheritance, membership and land rights are acquired within the family of their grandparents.  

Social Organization:

The society overall is egalitarian with the emphasis being placed on family and the overall success of the group, rather than focusing on the individual itself.  Status and title is not equally distributed however as many ranks exist as well as titles that are bestowed to others. To obtain the matai status, the village may examine the individuals contributions, and a family may pass this title onto someone who has helped them in many ways.

Role of Violence:

The Samoan culture believes in peace and harmony, and for the most part tries to maintain such order.  However just as in every culture, there are a few that are not able to follow such guidelines as can be found with a majority of the group.  In this culture, violence can be found within intimate relationships such as husband and wife.  This violence can be found at the hand of the man, exerting his power and control upon his wife.  In the Samoan culture, abuse sexually and/or verbally is not considered to be that of abuse, as one might consider it to be in the Western culture.  Therefore one does not consider such actions to be wrong or oppressive. Since the culture believes in a peaceful existence and success in the community, violence is not tolerated and if it should occur, many work to restore order in the household. Another form of violence seen in the community is that which is directed towards children.  Again, although violence is not tolerated by the culture as a whole, there are situations in which child abuse occurs.  This may be due to expectations that the parent has for their child which they may feel are not being fulfilled. However whatever the reason may be, the community as a whole may intervene to help restore balance to the village.

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Art Forms from the Past Translating to the Future

The Lascaux cave paintings were an incredible find to say the least. To think that these images that were created nearly 17,000 years ago, only to be unearthed over 70 years ago, is incredible.  These images that contained mostly animals and rarely any human beings or signs, seemed to tell a story, a journey or ideas.  The animals that were depicted were mainly horses, cattle and deer. I imagine that the artists whose paintings were done in these caves were trying to translate from personal experiences, from their ideas, through spiritual belief or possibly through artistic expression.  Some of the scenes could possibly tell a day’s journey out hunting or recreate a spiritual scene or ideas to be acted upon in time.  Although there weren’t many humans depicted in the paintings, it appears to be intentional.  This reason could be due to the importance of the animal in their everyday life; they relied upon hunting for sustenance and animals were often interpreted as the sacrificial “lamb”.  The paintings themselves reveal what was important to the people in their everyday lives as they chose to cover the walls with these images.  They also show what was essential to their survival at that particular time, and how much they valued it by paying homage to the animals.

The artist’s decision to paint also reveals their creativity and resources used in order to accomplish such task.  In order to paint, they discovered how to create light by lighting torches in order to illuminate the area in which they were working. In order to have something to paint with, the artists used earth pigments mixed with water in order to project color onto the walls of the cave. In order to accomplish such a difficult task given their resources and space in the caves, the artists had to work with what they had in order to get it done. This meant navigating through narrow passages in the caves, painting on walls that were taller than the artists painting them, and working in dimly lit conditions.  However regardless of the conditions in which these images were painted, the artists worked around it, and as a result, created images that have lasted throughout time. Three possible functions of this art to early humans could be to leave messages for those that would be visiting the caves as a possible warning or story to tell them.  A second function could be to record lessons, possibly of hunting or sustaining resources for food. A third function could be to pay homage to the animals for which they find to be important, either ones that are still alive or those that were previously killed during hunting excursions.

Although the Lascaux paintings were done nearly twenty thousand years ago, we can still find commonalities between the cave paintings and modern art observed today.  For example, both utilize expression in both art forms.  What one found important in years past may differ from today, however both forms incorporate expression in order to deliver such paintings.  Passion is another similarity between both forms; the artists from the Lascaux paintings were clearly passionate about what they painted as the animals filled the walls of the caves. The same can be said with modern art artists whose passion drives what images they choose to depict in their paintings. Another similarity can be found in choosing to tell a story through art; the cave paintings could have done so through the animals and modern artists may choose to do so with what is relevant and of importance in their time as well.

An art form that is my favorite to observe is dance.  The way one learns to tell a story and express themselves through dance is an incredible sight to see. I appreciate all forms of dance, from African, Ballet, Modern to Latin, as all forms are expressive and in some way tell a story.  Each technique and style is unique in its own right however learning one form inevitably helps to learn another. For those that practice this form of art, the function it serves is through self expression.  In addition to self expression, dance also serves as a great stress outlet. This art form also allows the artist to act out their emotions or tell a story either through their movement or through their musical choice. This story could be that of someone in love, someone consumed by anger, or someone overcome by grief. Whatever the story may be the options are endless. Dance can be found in many cultures around the world as almost every culture has their own specific dance form.  Not only are the movements different, but the music and dress form change with each culture as well. In African dance, movements are precise and often include large groups of people.  The dress is also unique in that many of the outfits are colorful or dark, incorporate animal prints, furs and beads, depending on the performance at hand. In Latin dance movements are swift, big and precise, and often full of energy.  Clothing can range from long flamenco skirts to brightly colored dresses and outfits that are revealing in nature. Dance as an art form and its culture benefit society greatly by allowing different cultures to express themselves through dance.  It also allows different cultures to connect with different societies through a shared interest in dance.  In addition to these factors, dance also provides entertainment and exercise to those that are either participating or observing. Although there are many positive affects from dance, a detrimental one could be the possible misunderstanding of the meaning of ones dance or their expression.

Violence in the Yanomamo Community

In the Yanomamo culture, killing is a common occurrence in the villages, and the likelihood is high that one will know a murder victim. The rules and consequences, as different as they may seem, also share similarities with the Western culture.  For the Yanomamo, killing often stems from women, jealousy, blood revenge, and infidelity.  These are also very similar catalysts in the Western culture as many battles have stemmed from such issues.  In the Yanomamo community, when kinsmen are killed revenge will then be sought, which leaves many in the killers community at risk as the raids often harm whomever they come into contact with. The consequences of killing however differ as the Yanomamo’s gain a fierce reputation if they quickly retaliate, often triumph in marriage and reproduction, and deter future violence. For the Western culture, the consequences of murder are imprisonment, loss of privileges, and a negative reputation.

The process of revenge killings includes the leader of the village determining if such revenge should be sought. If so, an attack consisting of 10 to 20 men will set out to raid the killer’s community, which often takes several days to get there.  Prior to such raid however women will eat the ashes of the murdered individual in order to help strengthen the efforts of the one’s performing the raid. After the killings are complete, the killer then performs a Yanomamo ritual known as the Unokaimou, which helps to protect the individual from supernatural harm.  Through these raids many lives are lost. Anyone in the village can be attacked and most men that are killed are killed in these raids. For those that assume the Unokais status, others will know who they are; they are looked at in a positive manner for their tendency to be violent and forceful. The Unokais in comparison to the non-unokais find more success in reproduction and marriage as they are better able to find mates.  This however could be due to their reputation and ability to force another into marriage.  As one can see, gaining the status of a Unokais comes with far greater benefits than those of the non-unokais, therefore men often choose this route over the other.

For those in the Yanomamo culture, kinship is the central force of all things that exist; when this is compromised, revenge killings then take place. Political structure, social status, and marriage and reproduction all directly correspond to kinship.  The political structure is set up to have a leader of the village who ultimately decides if revenge killings are to take place.  These leaders often have many kinsmen in their village as a result of previous marriages between others, which then lends itself to the likelihood that ones kin will be killed and revenge will be sought. For the Yanomamo, social status changes as a result of becoming known as a Unokais.  They are looked at as fierce and brutal who will quickly seek revenge for attacking a kinsmen.  On the opposite end of the spectrum, non-unokais are looked at as cowards who do not have the strength to perform a raid to seek revenge. As far as marriage and reproduction is concerned, their new social status as a Unokais helps to further their success in these areas.  Men are able to find mates more so than non-unokais, however as mentioned earlier, it is most likely because of their reputation and ability to take one by force.  Reproduction for the Unokais is then almost double than those non-unokais, which also stems from their ability to find mates. For the Yanomamo, kinship is the main source for all things connected to revenge killings.  In each village, the likelihood of one’s kin being killed is high, which leads to the eventuality of revenge being sought.

Although the act of killing is often something that someone does not set out to do nor want to do, it doesn’t take away from the fact that it happens.  Many killers that have killed will most likely say that they didn’t want to do it, but were compelled for some reason or another.  This alone shows how necessary laws are in order to properly handle these situations in a swift and just way.  Without such laws, our political system would be backlogged by individual case reviews and individual consequences.  Without a general system to handle such acts, we would see upheaval in the community as many would interpret some cases to be treated better than others.  Having set laws that handle situations such as killings helps to create a balanced system by ensuring that there are set guidelines as to how an issue will be decided.

Uncovering Truths

My interviewee is my mother Nadine. She was born in North Hollywood, CA to a middle class family.  She was her parent’s first born child and the only girl to her two younger brothers Ernest and Charles. She is of Mexican-American descent but never learned to speak Spanish as her mother’s side of the family had never learned as well. This pattern has been carried down to Nadine’s children; my sister and I never learned Spanish since our mother’s side only spoke English. Although my mother never learned Spanish, she grew up immersed in the Mexican-American culture and lived in an area that had a large Mexican population.  

My interview with my mother Nadine was done in a quiet setting and one that was comfortable for her, which was her home. As the anthropologist, I took to the interview with the intent to ask my mother questions, keeping in mind that these answers are from her point of view and not from mine. I think that knowing the interviewee can make it easier to cross the lines and input your own opinions into the interviewee’s experience, so I had to make a conscious effort to remember that the success of this interview would come from hearing what my mother had to say. During our interview, I found that I felt feelings of comfort as well as awkwardness during certain points.  When it came to asking general questions about Nadine’s family members, the answers came easily. However when it came to asking more in depth questions such as who she was close with and who she would not communicate with, I felt a sense of awkwardness in the time it took for her to answer the questions.  I could sense a feeling of unease as she answered the questions and it was as though she was recalling unfortunate memories. Although I could sense some questions were more difficult to answer than others, it didn’t affect my ability to continue the interview.  On the flip side, if my interviewee was someone that I was not related to, I think it would have been difficult to continue with the interview and ask the questions that needed to be asked.  However since I was interviewing my mother, I felt that I could go there and uncover the truths behind the awkward questions.

Through this interview I found that my mother was very close with her maternal side, particularly her grandmother Josie. This began as a young child and continued through to the end until her grandmother passed away.  Although my mom was close with her mother’s side, she wasn’t quite close with her own mother.  My mom said the reason for this divide was that they constantly bumped heads. She also felt that she could never please her mother as what she did and who she was, was never good enough.  I had always felt the friction in their relationship; however hearing my mom describe her feelings about her mother in this way gave me a clearer understanding of their relationship and why it never resolved itself.  It appears that because of this friction my mother chose to align herself with members from her mother’s side.  She is particularly close with her mother’s sisters, more so than she is with their children who are her first cousins. Although some are more close to one another than others, we as a family overall are quite close to everyone regardless of age. Although our family is quite large, with my grandmother having six siblings, we have remained a close knit group as we all live within 20 miles of each other. Since we have all grown up in this area, and come from a blend of Mexican and American culture, we are all able to equally relate to one another without cultural differences affecting our relationships, our experiences and our ability to communicate.

The individuals who have the most influence in our family are the women. This was the case with my great grandmother, my grandma, and now my mother.  I feel that they hold the most influence in our family as they are the most outspoken and opinionated.  I come from a family with a large majority of women who are very strong and vocal, and where the men tend to take on a more quiet role; this then leaves the women to assume the role as the matriarch. Although women in our family take on a powerful role, it doesn’t mean that the men are looked at as being less equal or subservient. They are just as powerful as the women however they tend to be more quiet about it. Being that we are a large family you would assume that it would be difficult for those that marry into our family to fit in, however it is actually quite the opposite.  Those that marry in are treated as blood relatives, and have become quite close with all of our family members. 

Through completing this interview with my mother I discovered things that I had not known about our family, such as the size of my mother’s father’s family.  My mom could remember the names of seven of his siblings however there were two more that she couldn’t remember.  I had never met my grandfather as he passed away before the age of thirty, and sadly never learned much about him.  However through this assignment, I got a chance to learn things about his side of the family that I had never known before. My mom was never close with his side of the family and therefore didn’t know if his siblings had children, who would be her first cousins. My family definitely places much more of an emphasis on the maternal side in comparison to the paternal side in our family.  This was the case for my mother and is the case with me. Funny enough, I discovered this pattern through the interview with my mother.  For me, I am extremely close with my father but I am not very close with his side of the family, and never was growing up.  Family functions and birthdays always included my mother’s side of the family, and rarely anyone from my dad’s side (even though he has brothers and sisters that live relatively close by).  Growing up you just see your closeness with one side of the family as what is comfortable and familiar however now I can see the pattern and similarity between myself and my mother. 

The Effort to Exist

The two different subsistence patterns of hunter-gatherer and agriculture present both benefits and cons to this form of survival.  The benefit seen by that of the hunter-gatherer is that they are a mobile community that easily adapted to environments providing undesirable dry conditions as grass still existed which sustained the animals. This then allowed the hunter-gatherer to in turn use the animals for their rich diet. Another benefit to this form of survival was that the hunter gatherer learned how to increase the amount of animals available to them by breeding them. This then helped to increase their resources, thus providing for more food.  Another positive was that the hunter-gatherer spent less time working to secure their resources, as opposed to those sustained by agriculture that had to spend hours working to maintain their crops. The benefit to agriculture was that farmers too were able to work their environment to their advantage.  This was done by ridding their land of unwanted resources in order to stimulate the growth of those that were desired. Agriculture also provided the ability for individuals to flourish through their ability to use plants as their resource. As time progressed, humans developed the ability to grow healthier plants. This manipulation of their environment led them to growing more of their resources which they could then store for future use. The invention of stone tools also developed through the agricultural process, which became a great asset.  Through agriculture, humans were able to establish themselves in villages which had a positive effect on the production of crops.  This too however also experienced a downside as the increase in population led to worsened living conditions, which then led to diseases, lack of food, and differences within the society.

Both survival patterns had their disadvantages; by becoming dependent on the animals and plants that were essential to their existence, humans were now confined to this way of living and had to spend much time nurturing the plants and animals in order to maintain them; although they spent much time devoted to their resources, hunter gatherers however did not have to spend as many hours as those in agriculture. For both ways of living populations grew as land was cleared and hunter-gatherers intensified; this then led to more complex societies with machines, which then led to pollution and global warming. The pattern that provides a healthier diet is that of a hunter gatherer as they are eating foods based in high proteins and fats; just by digesting such food helps to sustain stronger bones, taller stature, and healthier teeth and jaws.  The term “healthier” however is up to interpretation.  Although I find the hunter gatherer to have a healthier diet, one might say that those sustained by agriculture are healthier as they eat nutritious plants.  The downfall to such diet nonetheless is that individuals sustained by such consumption have shorter jaws that do not allow much room for teeth, and the existing teeth often need correction. Individuals are also susceptible to deadly diseases through such poor diet as well as shortages in food leading to hunger. Although there have been many noted issues with an agricultural existence, humans made the transition to a farming lifestyle without truly knowing that they were doing so.  However once they made the transition, it was difficult to go back to a hunting way of life.  What aided in such transition was that it was a slow progression into farming, and although some progressed, others in the world were still hunting and gathering until the way resources were produced changed completely.

The direct relationship between the availability of surplus and the ability to trade is seen as just that.  By having an overabundance of product, the situation to then use this extra product for trade is granted. If our resources were limited it would then reduce the likelihood of trade.  Two social benefits of trade are that it connected individuals to distant areas and societies they may have otherwise never connected with, and it allowed individuals to use their resources in order to obtain other desired items that they were not capable of producing. Through trading, more complex and networks of trade were created amongst societies and regions unlike before. Two negative social results of the development of trade were that it united different societies which left the chance of confrontation and violence during exchanges, and the development of more complex trade routes and complex societies which led to highly populated areas, the clearing of land to make room for such civilizations, and essentially deadly diseases as individuals were now living more closely to one another than ever before. The relationship between the development of agriculture and the development of trade is one that is also directly related to one another as the development of agriculture led to the ability to trade. As individuals migrated, they were able to come into contact with different societies who had items to offer in exchange for theirs, such as crops in exchange for wool.  Farmers were also able to manipulate their environment in order to yield more resources, which in turn allowed for the possibility of trade.